Motivation (Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and the learning theory)

According to Huucznsky and Buchanan (2007), an organisation s a managed system designed and operated to achieve a specific set of objectives.  It is a social group which distributes tasks for a collective goal. Whenever people interact in organisations, many factors come into play. All organizational studies seek to control, predict and explain the behaviors of people in the organisation, since the behavior of employees play a major role in organizational development, organizational performance enhancement and also individual and group performance, satisfaction and commitment. Organisations in recent times seek to improve performance and service quality, reduce production cost, increase efficiency and promote continuous improvement with the use of Information Technologies. These objectives can only be achieved through commitment and dedication of employees. It is believed that, employee commitment and dedication is dependent on how motivated they are in the organisation.

According to Hoyer and MacInnis (1997), motivation is an inner force that reflects goal- directed arousal. It is the driving force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goals in order to fulfill some need or expectation. The behavior of people is determined by what motivates them and their performance is a product of both ability and level.

Performance = function (ability × motivation)

Mullins (2010) defined motivation as the creation of stimuli, incentives and working environments that enable people to perform to the best of their ability. The heart of motivation is to give people what they really want most to work. Mescon (1985), affirmed that the existence of the concept of motivation for ages means that in every social set-up, be it a nation, a state or a community, individuals should be motivated in order to work effectively and efficiently towards high output goals. This implies that in order for organisations to give out their best, employee motivation is essential.

Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used to describe humans behavior. It is a very personal thing and is influenced by many variables. Farren (1989) suggested that to understand motivation, one needs to understand the basic human needs; family, health and well being, work/career, economic, learning, home/shelter, social relationships, spirituality, community, leisure, mobility and the environment/safety. Knowing they exist and understanding them gives the leader a deeper framework upon which to build an understanding of your own motivation and that of others. Using it as a check list when introducing change, is a useful way to check you have looked at the impact of the change on employee motivation from a number of different lenses.

Employee motivation is a major factor in the success or failure of any organisation. Without a motivated workforce, productivity, morale, profits, product and service delivery suffers, so in order to stay competitive, organisations must invest in effective decision strategies to motivate the staff. Different factors motivate individuals and team differently. While some are motivated by money, others are motivated by the opportunity for professional development, flexible work schedules, or a sense of accomplishment. From line managers to top executives, understanding what factors motivate employees is a key to gaining the human resource advantage that leads to success in organisations (Javitch Associates, 2007).

Motivating employees to complete their work correctly and on time is one of the major tasks of management. Changing an employee's perception of his place within a company is sometimes an effective way of improving organizational behavior constructively. Employees who perceive that they have a greater control over their work lives will likely be more motivated to excel within the organizational structure. A worker's social perception of others within the organization can affect his motivation to complete work effectively to a large degree. Motivation within an organization remains high if a worker perceives that there are opportunities for personal development or professional advancement, if he feels capable of completing tasks correctly and is involved with various organizational decision-making and goal-setting processes. Motivation can be reduced if the worker perceives a lack of opportunity for growth, a lack of involvement or a lack of opportunities to demonstrate any creativity. Each individual is motivated by needs and the most basic needs are inborn. People are wanting beings, they always want more depending on what they already have. To motivate employees, management need to know “what” motivates people, their needs and goals (content) and “how” motivation occurs (process). Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg and McClelland studied motivation from a “content” perspective.

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helped to explain how these needs motivate us all. He suggests that human needs are arranged in series of levels, a hierarchy of importance. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself. It is only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied that we are concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is an excellent model for understanding human motivation, but it is a broad concept. People move up (or down) the hierarchy, depending what's happening to them in their lives, it is also true that most people's motivational 'set' at any time comprises elements of all of the motivational drivers. For example, self-actualizers (level 5 - original model) are mainly focused on self-actualizing but are still motivated to eat (level 1) and socialise (level 3). Similarly, homeless folk whose main focus is feeding themselves (level 1) and finding shelter for the night (level 2) can also be, albeit to a lesser extent, still concerned with social relationships (level 3), how their friends perceive them (level 4), and even the meaning of life (level 5 - original model).

Figure 1.          Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Add caption

Once lower level needs have been satisfied, giving more of the same does not provide motivation. Individuals advance up the hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied, therefore, to provide motivation for a change in behavior, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs that seek satisfaction. People do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, just through the work situation. They satisfy them through other areas of their life as well. Therefore the manager would need to have a complete understanding of people’s private lives, not just their behavior at work. Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need. For example, some people prefer what they might see as the comparative safety of working in a bureaucratic organisation to a more highly paid and higher status position, but with less job security, in a different organisation. Satisfaction is the main motivational outcome of behavior but job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work performance.

Although, Maslow’s theories has had a significant impact on management approaches to motivation and the design of organisations to meet individual needs, there is the need to identify the relationship among the dynamic variables that make up motivation and the actions required to influence behavior and actions which provide contribution to our understanding of complex nature of work motivation. Organizational behavior is how people act in groups, particularly at work. In practice, no single type of organizational behavior characterizes a business, so leaders need to analyze which type their company uses and find ways to utilize that knowledge to make the company effective. People learn from each other every time and turn to see  each other as a motivator. Learning is a way by which employees are motivated. It is thought of as a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience (Maples and Webster 1980 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions. Learning may be explained by the combination of two basic approaches, behaviorism and the cognitive theories.

Merriam and Caffarella (1991) highlight four approaches or orientations to learning: Behaviorist, Cognitivist, Humanist, and Social/Situational. These approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education and the role that educators may take. Cognitive Learning Theory explains why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body as we learn things. This theory can be divided into two specific theories: the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and the Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT) (Sarah Mae Sincero, 2011). In the Social Cognitive Theory, 3 variables are considered which are interrelated with each other to enable learning to occur. They are the behavioral factors, environmental factors (extrinsic) and personal factors (intrinsic).

Learning according to the behaviorist theory is an observable change in behavior. Behaviorism, along with several newer variations that have names like information processing theory, emphasize the learning of facts and skills that authorities, such as teachers or school boards, have decided are important. Behavioral teaching and learning tends to focus on skills that will be used later. It does not, however, generally ask you to actually put the skills or knowledge you learn in

Constructivism is a theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas, to use in a "real" or "authentic" situation. Jean Piaget suggested that through processes of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences. When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing framework without changing that framework. Constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their experiences.

The social learning theory, focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Among others Albert Bandura (1996) is considered the leading proponent of this theory. It stresses that learning and subsequent changes in behavior take place as a result of interaction between individuals and their environment. Employees learn by observing the behavior of others and their outcomes of those behaviors. Behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Thus, learning may or may not result in a behavior change. Over the last 30 years social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.

Everybody has the magnificent ability to make things happen, to create consequences. The more one learns from experience of their consequences, the more reliably they are able to create the precise outcomes they desire. Everything you do has consequences and every consequences has a lesson. Learn well and create all the best you can envision. For effective and positive learning to occur an individual should have positive personal characteristics, exhibit appropriate behavior and stay in a supportive environment.

Reference

1. Learning theories knowledge (2011, September) at learning theories .com;http://www.learning-theories.com
2. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
3. www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm “learning theory”
4. iWise2^TM learning for tomorrow. www.iwise2.com//12-basic human-needs.
5. Majelantle A,(1998) Challenges, motivating Staff with limited resources.
6. Armstrong M, (2007), Handbook, Human Resource Management, Cogan Series.
7. Kreitner R. (1995), Management (6^th edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
8. Bedeian, A.G. (1993) Management (3^rd edition). New York: Dryden Press. 

Process and Need theoies

Learning theory

In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004; Ormrod, 1995). Learning could be thought of as 'a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience (Maples and Webster 1980 quoted in Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 124). Students who conceive learning as understanding reality are also able to see it as increasing their knowledge (Ramsden 1992: 27).
Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions.

Organizational Behaviour In The Context of Ghana Public Sector Reforms

In his attempt to infuse corporate governance ‘best practices’ in the Public Sector to achieve outcomes efficiently and effectively, the sector minister, Dr Paa Kwesi Induom is introducing performance measurement, job evaluation vis-à-vis salary progression, time management etc into the public service. (Ref: www.ghanaweb.com: General News of Thursday, 16 November 2006). Bravo! Minister. Had Ghana had these ‘dynamic measures’ (as opposed to policies that were shelved and collected dust) in place 50 years ago, Ghana would be in a better shape – socially, economically, politically, environmentally, industrially – what else would readers want to add?

Apparently, the minister is continuing to build a team of exceptional leaders, managers and operatives to drive change and lead the new Ghana Public Service (GPS) to new levels of excellence in the areas of quality, quantity, timeliness, risk and resource (financial and non-financial) management. The GPS, as I see it, is undertaking a significant change management program and the minister will need all the assistance that he requires to achieve this objective particularly in relation to reviews, audits, reporting, transparency, accountability and related management tools to achieve the required results.

A critical mechanism in this regard is to have in place a simple and workable performance management framework by utilising an Employee Performance Agreement (EPA) form to record performance exchanges between supervisors and subordinates. Typical variables on this form are: Performance Objectives i.e. Critical Success Factors, Key Result Areas and Expected Results and Performance Achievement i.e. Mid-Cycle Review and End-Cycle Assessment. These exchanges normally take place half-yearly. And these of course will highlight any training and development programs that some individuals may require to make up any gaps in their knowledge and skill base.

It should be noted, at this juncture, that in most jurisdictions within the Australian Public Service (APS) the above performance management mechanism is mandatory and failure to participate in it renders one ineligible for any salary progression and/or pay rise. And failure to obey a lawful direction can also lead to disciplinary action the consequences of which may be serious. Undoubtedly, this is the only practical way to measure the rhetorical ‘transparency and accountability’ within the Ghana Public Service and any public sector for that matter.

The above-mentioned practices come under the purview of organisational behaviour (OB) in the field of management studies. OB is a management and operational mechanism that can make or break an organisation (public or private).

The main objective of any organisation is to achieve results/outcomes effectively and efficiently. By effectiveness in this context, one means producing the intended or expected result. Efficiency on the other hand borders on competency in performance and use of resources. Both effectiveness and efficiency, to some degree, hinge on organisational behaviour of a given entity.

According to the literature organisational behaviour is the study of the individual, the group and the organisation systems level. In light of this organisational behaviour needs to be studied holistically. By holistic approach one should consider all the three components of OB, namely, the individual, the group and the organisation. To study any one or two of the three perspectives only will produce just a ‘half-baked’ product that will be ineffective and inefficient within an organisation.

Whenever people interact in organisations, many factors (constructive, destructive, positive, negative etc) come into play. Hence this paper attempts to explore the range of practices that define human resource management within an organisation – particularly the employment relationship from an organisational behaviour perspective. This field of study, according to literature, looks at work behaviour, i.e. what people do in an organisation, and how that behaviour affects the performance of the organisation. As a science, organisational behaviour is interested in ‘understanding, predicting and controlling/influencing’ overt behaviour at work. Generally, our success is measured by our ability to do this at the workplace.

The three levels of analysis: individual, group and organisation tend to correspond closely to the levels of a manager’s responsibility.

Individuals bring a complex set of characteristics, experiences, skills, values and attitudes to the workplace and these have an impact on their level of performance. In some instances managers can do little to alter some of these basic characteristics. However, managers can have a real impact on employee behaviour, especially through motivation, counselling, training, communication, vision sharing, job satisfaction and related management tools and ingredients of learning organisation.

The two familiar sayings ‘two heads are better than one’ and ‘too many cooks spoil the broth’ are used to illustrate the point that groups can have advantages and disadvantages for the members and for the organisation. Work groups are created within organisations to enable individuals to interact and contribute to an organisation’s production purpose. However, the study of organisational behaviour acknowledges that people behave differently when working in a group. In particular, communication patterns and levels of conflict will affect group behaviour.

Communication refers to the way in which information is transmitted between the individual and the group and is therefore an essential link between these levels. The group and the organisation are in turn linked through leadership and the authority conveyed through the organisational structure.

Changing and developing employee behaviour is a key factor in OB, and therefore the organisation’s human resource practices (such as selection processes, training programs, and performance appraisals) influence employee productivity, absenteeism, turnover and job satisfaction.

At the workplace, a manager is responsible for the performance of one or more subordinates. As such, management’s work focuses on the behaviour of individuals and groups and on the processes and structures of organisations. The manager’s immediate concerns are:

- Task performance (quality and quantity of work produced) - Human resource maintenance (the attraction and continuation of a viable workforce; for example job satisfaction, job involvement, grievances, absenteeism, turnover, performance, etc.).

In summary, it can be said that we study organisational behaviour to develop our ability to solve problems, and prevent problems from occurring. As you may be aware, good managers are problem solvers. Hence it is important that you have some idea of why people do what they do in organisations. Some examples of problem indicators are: absenteeism, turnover, tardiness, negative attitudes, poor quality of work, declining work quantity. High turnover and absenteeism disrupt the productive processes of an organisation and reduce efficiency.

In this era of Public Sector Reforms it is recommended (if not imperative) for its managers and operatives to take cognisance of the above management tools to enhance the productivity of the sector.

Charles Agyeman Manu MEng, MAppSc, MBA.
Assistant Director, Professional Development, Australian Public Service.
Member, National Institute for Governance, Australia

management theories

Scientific Management (F W Taylor)

This provides managers with a scientific basis for solving problems and making decisions. It arose out of a need to improve manufacturing productivity through more efficient use of physical and human resources, and grew from the pioneering work of five people, Frederick W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Henry Gantt, and Harrington Emerson.

Frederick Winslow Taylor known as ,the father of scientific management, insisted that management itself would have to change and, further, suggested that decisions based on rules of thumb be replaced with precise procedures developed after careful study of individual situations. The essence of his scientific management can be summarized in the following principles which became the basic guidelines for managing the work of individuals.

• Develop a science for each element of a worker's job to replace rules of thumb.
• Job specialization should always be part of each job.
• Ensure the proper selection, training and development of workers.
• Planning and scheduling of the work are essential.
• Standards with respect to methods and time for each task should be established.
• Wage incentives should be integral part of each job.

Taylor’s ideas also stimulated others to continue the formulation of management thought

Hawthorne Studies (Elton Mayo)

Elton Mayo conducted a series of experiments on worker productivity in 1924 at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company in Illinois. These experiments have come to be known as the Hawthorne studies. Mayo suggested that the way people were treated had an important impact on performance. Individual and social processes played a major role in shaping worker attitudes and behavior. Therefore, management must recognize the importance of worker's needs for recognition and social satisfaction. Mayo termed this concept the social man, since individuals are motivated by social needs and good on the job relationships, and respond better to work-group pressure than to management control activities.

Human Relations Movement

The human relations movement grew from the Hawthorne studies. Two of the best-known contributors who helped advance the human relations movement were Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor.

Abraham Maslow, a practicing psychologist, observed that his patients were motivated by a sequence of needs, including monetary incentives, social acceptance, and others. He generalized his work and suggested a hierarchy of needs. Maslow's theory of "hierarchical needs" was a primary factor in the increased attention that managers began to give to the work of academic theorists.

Douglas McGregor advanced two beliefs for managers about human behavior, that is, Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X takes a relative pessimistic and negative view of workers. Theory Y represents the assumptions that human relations advocates make. The point of Theory Y is that organizations can take advantage of the imagination and intellect of all its employees.

Contingency Approach

This is the study of the effect of technology on the organization. Joan Woodward found that many variations in organization structure were associated with differences in manufacturing techniques. She pointed out that, “Different technologies imposed different kinds of demands, and these demands had to met through an appropriate structure. Commercially successful firms seemed to be those in which function and form were complementary.”

James D. Thompson whose work in the area of technology's effect on organization was already a classic argued that organizations that experience similar technological problems will engage in similar behavior. The contingency view approaches management from a totally different perspective than the formal schools of management do. It brought out that not all people or situation should be handled identically therefore universal solutions and principles cannot be applied to organizations. The contingency theory suggests that what managers do in practice depends on a given set of circumstances or situations.

The contingency perspective tells us that the effectiveness of various managerial practices, styles, techniques, and functions will vary according to the particular circumstances of the situation. The main determinants of the contingency view relate to the external and internal environments of the organization. Its major problem is that it is often used as an excuse for not acquiring formal knowledge about management. This formal study of management helps managers decide which factors are relevant in what situations and certain elements should serve as a foundation for continued growth and developments.